quarta-feira, 31 de janeiro de 2007
Abertura do Ano Judicial
Leia:
La Fiscalía alemana ordena detener a 13 agentes de la CIA por los vuelos secretos
La fiscalía de la ciudad bávara de Múnich ha dictado esta mañana orden de detención contra 13 supuestos miembros de la Central de Inteligencia de Estados Unidos (CIA) presuntamente implicados en el secuestro del ciudadano alemán de origen libanés Jaled El Masri. El fiscal del caso ha confirmado así las informaciones adelantadas por la emisora de NDR, según las cuales estos 13 agentes están acusados de "secuestro y grave lesión corporal".
El fiscal, Christian Schmidt-Sommerfeld, ha explicado que las órdenes de detención se han tramitado en los últimos días. Anteriormente, la Fiscalía de Múnich había recibido los nombres de algunos agentes de la CIA que podrían haber estado relacionados con el secuestro, aunque los fiscales no han querido dar más detalles al respecto por el momento, ya que según ha anuncaod Schmidt-Sommerfeld, en breve se ofrecerá una rueda de prensa para informar sobre el caso.
El País - 31/1/2007
Magna Carta (1215)
People throughout the world have heard of Magna Carta. It is often held to be the corner-stone of liberty and the chief defence against arbitrary and unjust rule in England. It contains few sweeping statements of principle, but is a series of concessions wrung from King John by his rebellious barons in 1215. Magna Carta was promptly overturned by the Pope, to whom John had given the overlordship of England. Four copies of the original version survive. Two are held in the British Library; the others are in Lincoln and Salisbury.
Fonte: Library British
segunda-feira, 29 de janeiro de 2007
Casa da Suplicação
I – A ausência dos requisitos de conteúdo e de forma do mandado de detenção europeu, a que se refere o art.º 3.º da Lei n.º 65/2003, de 23 de Agosto, não são causa de recusa obrigatória ou de recusa facultativa, previstos, respectivamente, nos art.ºs 11.º e 12.º.
II - A falta desses requisitos importa uma irregularidade sanável, nos termos do art.º 123.º do CPP, aplicável subsidiariamente por força do art.º 34.º da Lei n.º 65/2003.
III - A circunstância da pessoa procurada entender que não praticou factos que determinam responsabilidade criminal é irrelevante para o Estado português, que só tem de conhecer da conformidade legal do próprio mandado no sentido de o poder executar, pois a decisão judiciária é do Estado que o emitiu e é perante ele que aquela tem de exercer os direitos de defesa relativos ao procedimento criminal em curso.
AcSTJ de 25.01.2007, Proc. n.º 271/07-5, Relator: Cons. Santos Carvalho
Tribunal caseiro
Dos crimes sexuais à corrupção no futebol, muitos são os casos que, nos últimos anos, suscitaram a discussão do papel da televisão em relação à justiça e, mais especificamente, face ao funcionamento do aparelho estatal da justiça. Na esmagadora maioria desses casos, a discussão reduz-se à avaliação do respeito (ou não) pelo segredo de justiça. Insisto: reduz-se.
http://dn.sapo.pt/2007/01/28/media/tribunal_caseiro.html
Retirado do Mar salgado
Segunda-feira, Janeiro 29:
O DIÁRIO DO LEOPARDO (XIV): Sob o pretexto da dar voz à indignação e à cidadania, continua-se a remexer em tripas capazes de enjoar um abutre. Depois do caso de Torres Novas, o do incêndio de Cascais: populares especialistas em protecção civil, muita "revolta", microfones e câmaras em perseguição de carne queimada.
A Arte nos espaços da Justiça
3º CONGRESSO MUNDIAL CONTRA A PENA DE MORTE
Um congresso virado para o mundo árabe...
Abolir na África do Norte e no Médio-Oriente, oferecer uma tribuna internacional aos abolicionistas dos mundos Árabe e muçulmano , é um dos principais objectivos do 3º Congresso mundial contra a pena de morte que se inicia em Paris nesta sexta-feira...
A eleição dos vogais do Conselho Superior da Magistratura e os Juízes
No próximo dia 1 de Março vai ter lugar a eleição dos Juízes vogais do Conselho Superior da Magistratura que representam naquele órgão os Juízes das várias instâncias.
Oportunidade para reflectir, ainda que brevemente, sobre o papel do Conselho Superior da Magistratura e sobre o contributo dos Juízes portugueses para a credibilização do sistema de administração da justiça em Portugal.
Ao longo dos anos o Conselho Superior da Magistratura tem-se assumido e actuado como “simples” órgão de gestão e disciplina dos Juízes colocados nos Tribunais Judiciais. È um facto que nem os esforços dos seus membros consegue desmentir…
Aqui e além mais interventivo junto dos Juízes e da opinião pública, evidenciando pontualmente para o exterior uma imagem de isenção e rigor, foi, no entanto incapaz, até também pelos parcos meios de que dispunha, de, por si só, se afirmar, no plano social e político, como parceiro privilegiado na definição dos rumos para a Justiça.
A aprovação da Lei Orgânica do Conselho Superior da Magistratura, justificando renovadas esperanças, torna as próximas eleições um momento importante para os juízes iniciarem um ciclo de mudança.
Não será tempo de ambas as listas candidatas defenderem um Conselho Superior da Magistratura que seja o órgão central da organização judiciária, co-responsável pela definição e execução das políticas para o sector, baseando-se no profundo conhecimento que têm do sistema de administração da justiça os seus membros?
A salvaguarda do prestígio de uma magistratura completamente independente dos restantes poderes do Estado, prestigiada e eficaz não imporá a escolha de pessoas abertas ao diálogo e empenhadas na busca dos necessários consensos, mas ao mesmo tempo firmes e intransigentes na defesa dos princípios e valores e na promoção de uma melhor justiça para os cidadãos?
Não será tempo de os juízes portugueses manifestarem a sua disponibilidade para protagonizar um Conselho Superior da Magistratura actuante, influente e credível, contribuindo dessa forma para o renascer da confiança dos cidadãos nos seus juízes?
Cada um responderá como entender, na certeza de que a nossa indiferença fará de nós protagonistas de um futuro para a Justiça que, seguramente, não queremos…
domingo, 28 de janeiro de 2007
Preços estabelecidos para os serviços dos clínicos. Tribunal confirma multa da Autoridade da Concorrência à Ordem dos Médicos
O Tribunal do Comércio de Lisboa confirmou a multa da Autoridade da Concorrência à Ordem dos Médicos pelo estabelecimento de preços máximos e mínimos para os serviços dos clínicos, mas reduziu o valor inicial da coima.
A sentença do Tribunal do Comércio de Lisboa, datada de 18 de Janeiro e à qual a agência Lusa teve acesso, considera que a Ordem dos Médicos "agiu com dolo directo" ao estabelecer os montantes mínimos e máximos que os clínicos com actividade privada podem cobrar pelos seus serviços.O tribunal confirmou a sanção determinada no ano passado pela Autoridade da Concorrência, mas reduziu o valor da multa de 250 mil euros para 230 mil euros.
Responsabilidade dos auditores. Consulta da Comissão quanto a uma possível reforma
The European Commission has launched a public consultation on whether there is a need to reform rules on auditors’ liability in the EU and on the possible ways forward. This follows an independent study on the economic impact of current auditors' liability regimes and on insurance conditions in Member States (IP/06/1307). The Commission presents four possible options for reforming auditors' liability regimes in the EU and invites stakeholders to give their views on the issues involved by 15 March 2007.
Internal Market and Services Commissioner Charlie McCreevy said: "There is an increasing trend of litigation against auditors, but often they cannot obtain sufficient insurance to cover the risk. So there is a real danger of one of the "Big Four" being faced with a claim that could threaten its existence. There are many ways to improve this situation: some Member States already have capped auditors' liability, while others are introducing proportional liability combined with some limitations on who can sue auditors. However, given the differences between national markets, there is probably no one-size-fits-all approach. I want to ensure a thorough debate on the possible ways forward, and I encourage interested parties to give us their views."
Possible ways forward
In October 2006, the Commission published an economic impact study prepared by an external consultant, London Economics. On the basis of this study, the Commission invites stakeholders to give their views on four possible options for reforming auditors’ liability:
More information is available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/auditing/liability/index_en.htm
Acção de incumprimento contra Portugal. Liberdade de estabelecimento. Inspecção de veículos
Brussels, 13 December 2006
The European Commission has taken action to put an end to obstacles to the freedom of establishment in Germany and Portugal. The Commission has decided to refer Germany to the European Court of Justice over its authorisation rules for vehicle inspection organisations, in particular the requirement for compulsory affiliation of a minimum number of (self-employed) independent experts. On the same subject, the Commission will formally request Portugal to amend its rules on the granting of authorisations to bodies of other Member States wishing to carry on vehicle inspection activities in Portugal. This formal request takes the form of a “reasoned opinion”, the second stage of the infringement procedure laid down in Article 226 of the EC Treaty. If there is no satisfactory reply within two months, the Commission may refer the matter to the European Court of Justice. The Commission considers these national rules to be incompatible with EC Treaty rules on the freedom of establishment (Article 43).
Portugal – establishment of vehicle inspection bodies
According to Portuguese legislation, bodies wishing to carry on vehicle inspection activities in Portugal need an authorisation which may be granted under certain conditions, which the Commission considers excessively restrictive and incompatible with the freedom of establishment. The conditions in question are the granting of new authorisations depending on the public interest, the obligation to have a minimum social capital of 100,000 EUR, the imposition of an exclusive object requirement on the company, and incompatibility rules concerning partners, managers and administrators of these companies with other activities in the area of car manufacturing.
The Commission cannot accept the argument of the Portuguese authorities that the restrictions are covered by Article 45(1) of the EC Treaty as the activities concerned are not connected with the exercise of official authority. Furthermore, the Commission cannot accept that the restrictions are justified by imperative reasons relating to road safety and fraud prevention, as there are other less restrictive measures to attain these objectives, such as appropriate controls on these bodies.
The latest information on infringement proceedings concerning all Member States is available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/community_law/eulaw/index_en.htm
Acção de incumprimento contra Portugal. Qualificações profissionais
IP/06/1789
Brussels, 13 December 2006
The European Commission has decided to refer the following Member States to the European Court of Justice under Article 226 of the EC Treaty: Portugal over its failure to implement EU rules on the recognition of qualifications for pharmacist-biologists; and Spain over its rules on the recognition of qualifications for hospital pharmacists.
Portugal – pharmacist-biologists
The Commission has decided to refer Portugal to the European Court of Justice over its failure to implement Directive 89/48/EEC on a general system for the recognition of professional qualifications in the case of the profession of pharmacist-biologist (pharmacist specialised in “Análises Clínicas").
Directive 89/48/EEC is designed to ensure freedom of movement within the Union for a large number of regulated professions. Portugal decided to implement this Directive by means of a general decree-law applicable to all the regulated professions listed exhaustively therein. However, the profession of pharmacist-biologist, although regulated in Portugal, was not included in the decree-law. This means that qualified pharmacist-biologists from other Member States are not entitled to practise in Portugal and, consequently, are denied the rights of freedom of movement and freedom of establishment granted by the Treaty.
Although another Community instrument (Directive 85/433/EEC) provides for the automatic recognition of formal qualifications in pharmacy, it relates solely to basic diplomas guaranteeing the right of establishment. As a result, specialist pharmacy qualifications, such as those relating to pharmacist-biologists, are covered by the directives on the general system for the recognition of professional qualifications. Portugal has failed to respond to the additional reasoned opinion notified to it by the Commission.
The latest information on infringement proceedings concerning all Member States is available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/community_law/eulaw/index_en.htm
sábado, 27 de janeiro de 2007
Blogs, cultura e sociedade
Todos sabemos que há por aí muitos blogs em que as pessoas despejam, especialmente em comentários, toda a espécie de mau génio que lhes sai descontrolado, perfídias, suspeições, coisas que não diriam no seu círculo de amigos ou conhecidos. E que não merecem obviamente qualquer “investigação”. Seria a isto que o Procurador-Geral da República se referia na gravação que o “YouTube” difunde e este blog muito bem recupera. Será uma questão de civismo (ou falta dele).
Mas perpassa pela sua resposta à pergunta feita na AR – que, aliás, se desconhece em concreto – um certo desdém sobre os blogs em geral e as "modernices" das novas tecnologias que lhe andam associadas. Se é assim, como parece, então tudo fia mais fino.
Como é possível neste tempo que vivemos alardear um soberano desconhecimento sobre matérias hoje no topo das preocupações, no caso a informática e as telecomunicações?
Refiro apenas dois pontos.
Acabo de ler algures que se deseja introduzir no currículo dos primeiros anos do sistema educativo a matéria da protecção jurídica dos dados pessoais, aspecto que obviamente só passou a ser um fenómeno preocupante a partir do tratamento da informação por computador. A nosso ver, é bom fazer acompanhar o ensino do manejo do computador, que se faz no básico, com o alerta para os problemas que a informática suscita.
Por seu turno, a cibercriminalidade, objecto de uma Convenção que Portugal subscreveu em 2001 e tarda em ratificar, penetra hoje a maior parte da criminalidade mais grave, de índole internacional ou transnacional. Não estamos a falar apenas de pedofilia, mas de branqueamento de capitais, de corrupção e toda a criminalidade económico-financeira afim, e também da preparação dos grandes atentados terroristas que obviamente fazem uso das redes privadas e públicas de telecomunicações, mesmo com o polémico Echelon a funcionar.
Quer se goste quer não, com mais ou menos jeito, estas matérias não podem ser ignoradas ou minimizadas. E merecem a especial atenção de muitos magistrados do MP, que não confundem uma parte dos blogs com o seu todo.
A respeito do seu peso no contexto da comunicação social, caiu-me sob os olhos o livro de Giuseppe Granieri, “Geração Blogue”, da Editorial Presença, 2006 (tradução), onde se encontra eco, entre muitas outras coisas, da influência dos blogs sobre outros meios de comunicação, o que podem significar de barómetro de opinião e do interesse sobre determinado tema, às vezes abandonado pela imprensa mas que a blogosfera obriga a retomar. Diz-se em certo passo (p. 108): “Não é por acaso... que hoje a alfabetização digital faz parte integrante da alfabetização e se encontra entre as prioridades dos programas de governo quase em toda a parte. O papel da Rede na história dos meios de comunicação de massas e da sua relação com a educação é muito claro: a Internet tem a função de remeter os indivíduos para uma participação activa no processo de compreensão e construção da cultura e da sociedade”.
São estas novas tecnologias - é verdade que nos colocam em desvantagem com os mais jovens -que nos permitem apreciar, em tempo real, opiniões de que discordamos e que podemos livremente objectar, sem formalidades, ainda quando emitidas por pessoas por quem se tem consideração.
sexta-feira, 26 de janeiro de 2007
"Os blogs...
Felizmente, há quem não pense assim: no Supremo Tribunal de Justiça dos EUA, por exemplo...
Casa da Suplicação
I - A acusação é o elemento estruturante de definição do objecto do processo, não podendo o tribunal promovê-lo para além dos limites daquela, (ne procedat judex ex officio), nem condenar para além dos da acusação (sententia debet esse conformis libello).A definição do thema decidendum pela acusação é uma consequência da estrutura acusatória do processo penal.
II - Neste contexto, nunca o tribunal poderia deixar de se pronunciar por si, ex officio, quanto aos efeitos intraprocessuais da existência algo incomum de duas acusações sucessivas no mesmo processo, ambas comportando exactamente os mesmos factos apenas divergindo nas qualificações jurídicas, ao menos, com vista a definir exactamente os limites do thema decidendum com que iria ter que lidar, enfim, decidindo previamente como se articulam as duas acusações, melhor, a segunda acusação com a pronúncia anterior de que a primeira foi objecto e já transitada em julgado, se aquele thema se mantém nos limites do despacho de pronúncia, se se alargou e em que termos, por via da segunda acusação, se tal alargamento era processualmente admissível, quais as suas consequências em relação aos confins da pronúncia já então fixada, em suma, quais as coordenadas constitucionais e legais a que tal situação processual deve ser aferida – art.ºs 311.º, n.º 1, 327.º, n.º 1 e 338.º, n.º 1, todos do Código de Processo Penal.
III - A omissão de pronúncia sobre tal questão essencial implica, nos termos do disposto no artigo 379.º, n.º 1, c), do mesmo diploma adjectivo, a nulidade do aresto recorrido, sendo certo que foi arguida pelo recorrente, mas nem sequer necessitava de o ser, já que podia ser oficiosamente conhecida em recurso, tal como emerge do n.º 2 do mesmo artigo.
AcSTJ de , 25.01.2007, proc. n.º 158/07, Relator: Cons. Pereira Madeira
A função social da linguagem juridica através dos tempos
Gustavo Félix Grizzuti
SUMÁRIO
1. Introdução.- 2. Fundamentação Teórica e histórico da função social da linguagem jurídica através dos tempos. 3. Decorrências para a Educação: Novos Paradigmas. - 4. Considerações finais. Resumo.- 5. Referências.
quinta-feira, 25 de janeiro de 2007
SIMPÓSIO DE DIREITO PROCESSUAL PENAL
DO PROCESSO PENAL INTERNO AO PROCESSO PENAL INTERNACIONAL: ALGUNS ASPECTOS CRÍTICOS
BRAGA
25 - JANEIRO - 2007
21:30 horas
Local: Associação Jurídica de Braga
- «Revisão do processo penal: os recursos» - Juiz Conselheiro Dr. Simas Santos, Supremo Tribunal de Justiça
- «Alguns aspectos do processo penal internacional» - Prof. Doutor Wladimir Brito, Advogado e Professor da Escola de Direito da Universidade do Minho
Moderador:
Dr. Óscar Ferreira Gomes, Presidente da Associação Jurídica de Braga e Advogado
Avaliação da Lei Tutelar e Educativa
Apresentação:
“Decorridos 5 anos sobre a entrada em vigor da Lei Tutelar Educativa, torna-se necessário pensar e avaliar a sua aplicação.
A Faculdade de Direito da Universidade do Porto, enquanto entidade de investigação científica, e o Instituto de Reinserção Social, enquanto órgão da administração da justiça responsável pela execução das medidas tutelares educativas, levam a efeito um Seminário com o objectivo de pensar a avaliação da Lei Tutelar Educativa.
Este Seminário terá lugar nas instalações da Faculdade de Direito do Porto e destina-se a técnicos de reinserção social, magistrados, advogados, entidades policiais e entidades responsáveis pela formação.
O primeiro dia do Seminário visa a criação de um espaço de reflexão e debate, quer através de uma mesa redonda sobre a aplicação e execução das medidas tutelares educativas, quer através de workshops temáticos.
O segundo dia será destinado a conferências, com a participação do Professor Doutor Cândido Agra, da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade do Porto, da Professora Doutora Anabela Rodrigues do Centro de Estudos Judiciários e do Professor Doutor Jean Trépanier da Escola de Criminologia da Universidade de Montreal. Ainda neste dia serão debatidas as conclusões dos workshops realizados na véspera e apresentadas as conclusões finais do Seminário.”
Os interessados deverão inscrever-se previamente com vista à reserva do almoço que ocorre no próprio espaço do seminário. As inscrições deverão ser remetidas por correio electrónico para:
Instituto de Reinserção Social
Telefone móvel: 965 103 139Escola de Criminologia da Faculdade de Direito da Universidade do Porto
Telefone: 225 076 000
E-mail: fernando.mariz@irsocial.mj.pt
Telefone: 222 041 641
E-mail: rfaria@direito.up.pt
quarta-feira, 24 de janeiro de 2007
As crianças em risco
Droits des enfants placés et en situation de risque (03/01/2007)
"Les enfants devraient grandir dans leur famille. Celle-ci, en cas de crise ou de difficultés, devrait recevoir de la part des autorités publiques une aide lui permettant de résoudre ses problèmes et qui soit adaptée à chaque situation spécifique. Dans certaines situations, néanmoins, les parents sont dans l'incapacité d'élever leurs enfants ou représentent un danger pour eux. L'enfant et ses parents doivent alors être séparés soit avec l'accord des parents soit sur décision de justice. Le placement doit rester une exception, une solution temporaire - la plus courte possible -, envisageable seulement si toutes les conditions requises sont réunies et si l'objectif premier de cette décision est l’intérêt supérieur de l'enfant, avec à la clé une intégration ou une réintégration sociale rapide et réussie. Le but du placement doit être le développement et l'épanouissement de l'enfant, dont l'opinion doit être prise en compte selon son âge et son degré de maturité. La protection et le bien-être de l'enfant, fondés sur ses droits - dont ceux de l'enfant placé en institution -, sont une priorité du Conseil de l'Europe, comme l'affirme la Recommandation Rec(2005)5 du Comité des Ministres aux Etats membres relative aux droits des enfants vivant en institution. Les effets néfastes des institutions sur le développement de l'enfant ayant été prouvés, l'objectif est de prévenir ce type de placement et de réduire le nombre d'enfants placés en développant des solutions alternatives."
domingo, 21 de janeiro de 2007
Casa da Suplicação
NULIDADE DA SENTENÇA - enumeração dos factos provados
É nulo por violação dos artigos 374.º, n.º 2, e 379.º, n.º 1, a), do Código de Processo Penal, o acórdão de Relação que confirmou a condenação do arguido na pena única de 25 anos de prisão por autoria de dois crimes consumados e um tentado de homicídio doloso qualificado, se o dolo repousa, afinal, numa hipótese condicional e, não, como devia, num facto provado «no momento da prática dos factos, estaria, para estes em concreto, capaz de se avaliar e de se determinar de acordo com a sua própria avaliação».
AcSTJ de 18.01.2007, proc. n.º 4806/06.5, Relator: Cons. Pereira Madeira
quinta-feira, 18 de janeiro de 2007
Filmagens e denúncias
Nos EUA discute-se acesa e emocionalmente o caso das jovens do “triângulo amoroso” em que uma espanca a outra perante a passividade dos colegas, com o registo de imagens de um deles, agora a circular por todo o mundo.
Por curiosidade, acabava de ler um artigo em que se chama a atenção para a “confusão de poderes” que pode resultar de sites ou atitudes do tipo http://www.denonciation.com/ onde se procura fazer a distinção entre delação, um acto inaceitável, e denúncia como “acto cívico de alerta contra os abusos dos poderosos e dos que pensam encontrar-se acima da lei”. A denúncia, sob a designação de "whistleblowing" é acolhida nos países anglo-saxónicos, Alemanha, Canadá, USA, como acto cívico que envolve frequentemente a protecção das próprias autoridades oficiais.
Diz-se naquele site: « Aujourd'hui, grâce aux nouvelles technologies, il est possible de créer un vent de panique positive en très peu de temps, à la seule condition d'être organisé pour toucher très vite toutes les instances qui réagissent à la peur de l'opinion publique, de sa masse et de son nombre. »
Tudo se potencia por força das novas tecnologias, é um facto, desde logo, a partir da nova geração de telemóveis multifunções que permitem fazer de cada portador um jornalista. Diz-se, porém, que de repórter a informador, de denunciante a delator, o caminho é facilmente percorrido. A propensão humana para o erro ou a inveja, acrescentaríamos, para a exibição fácil, são elementos que proporcionam a derrapagem.
Captar sons e imagens e colocá-los na Internet é algo que se faz hoje com grande desembaraço e o Poder deste novo meio constitui uma realidade indesmentível.
Mas para além da discussão ética e cívica – e vem-me de novo à mente a “bondade” da lei que permite as listas de devedores ao Fisco e à Segurança Social na Internet – talvez valha a pena recordar que constitui crime (artigo 192º do CP) a devassa da vida privada das pessoas, designadamente a intimidade da vida familiar ou sexual, mediante fotografia ou filme, ou a divulgação de factos da vida privada de outrem, sem que esteja em causa a realização de um interesse público legítimo e relevante.
Aliás, a simples gravação de palavras, a fotografia ou a filmagem de outrem, sem seu consentimento, ou a sua utilização ou permissão de uso, constituem o crime a que se refere o artigo 199º do CP, este um crime público.
A denúncia é obrigatória para as entidades policiais e para os funcionários em certas condições.
Em França, o departamento central de polícia que luta contra a criminalidade informática dispõe de um sistema on line que permite tratar as comunicações de internautas e fornecedores de acesso sobre conteúdos considerados ilícitos.
Desde que não aceite comunicações anónimas ou dificilmente identificáveis, o sistema poderia, a nosso ver, prestar um bom serviço em alguma “limpeza” da Net. Entre nós, não existe, ou não demos por ele.
Abertura de concurso para ingresso no XXVI Curso de Formação de Magistrados
Consultar:
A Amizade
AuBonheur des Dames 47
*
III Congresso de Processo Penal
O programa e a ficha de inscrição podem ser consultados em Almedina.net.
A ficha de inscrição pode ser impressa e utilizada por terceiros. Basta para isso que se faça uma fotocópia da mesma, que deverá depois ser enviada, devidamente preenchida, por correio, e-mail ou fax para os seguintes contactos:
Miltemas
Rua Visconde de Bóbeda, nº 70
4000 – 108 Porto
Tel: 91. 958 89 51/3
Fax: 22. 5103883
info@miltemas.com
As inscrições também podem ser efectuadas online, através da página www.almedina.net/eventos/cpp.
Juízes analfabetos
[...] Em 13 de Dezembro de 1642, uma lei proíbe o acesso de analfabetos às magistraturas ordinárias. Fosse como fosse, a esmagadora maioria dos juízes ordinários continuou a ser constituída por pessoas não iniciadas no direito, pois as fracas rendas do cargo não o tornavam atraentes para letrados; e são, de facto, neste sentido alguns testemunhos ulteriores, já da última fase do Antigo Regime ou mesmo do período liberal.
•
Antonio Manuel Hespanha, As Vésperas do Leviathan - Instituições e Poder Político Portugal - Séc. XVII, Livraria Almedina, 1994
quarta-feira, 17 de janeiro de 2007
O magistrado João Mendes da Silva, pai de António José da Silva, o judeu
No meio do caminho tinha um vulto:
biografia transversa do juiz especular
que foi o pai de Antônio José da Silva, o judeu
Professor Dr. José Maurício Saldanha Álvarez
Resumo: O artigo analisa o papel social do Dr. João Mendes da Silva, magistrado régio incumbido de aplicar medidas de alivio da escravidão do africano na cidade do Rio de Janeiro na passagem do século XVII para o século XVIII. Apresentamos seu filho, Antonio José da Silva, o judeu, como a voz que vibra e reflete a confissão literária onde o pai, o Dr. João Mendes da Silva, destaca-se como um modelo de ator político e magistrado. Veremos ainda como, no Antigo Regime, e no Antigo Regime português no império colonial, o escrito adquiriu um papel destacado mediando significações sociais e representando a estrutura social e dos poderes dentro de um contexto de intolerância e repressão onde o texto literário instala frêmitos de sensibilidade.
terça-feira, 16 de janeiro de 2007
Fiscalidade. A Comissão Europeia exige que Portugal não discrimine os prestadores de serviços estrangeiros.
Brussels, 9 January 2007
According to Portuguese rules non-resident services providers are subject to a final Portuguese withholding tax on the gross amount of their income, whereas domestic providers would be taxed only on their net profits, i.e. after deduction of related costs.
In the view of the Commission this legislation is likely to dissuade foreign services providers from providing services in Portugal, and might dissuade Portuguese clients from buying services from foreign providers, and therefore constitutes an infringement of Article 49 (free of the EC Treaty
Portugal notes that these rules do not apply to those service providers from the majority of EU and EFTA/EEA Member States with whom Portugal has signed a Double Tax Convention (DTC). For those cases where the rules are applicable, Portugal remarks that the difference in the tax base might be offset by the difference between the rate applicable to resident entities and the final withholding tax applied to non-resident entities. The Portuguese Government also claims that the measures are necessary to combat tax fraud.
However, the Commission considers that there is discrimination to foreign services providers from Member States who have not signed a DTC with Portugal. The Commission is of the view that discrimination exists when it cannot be ensured that differences in the level of taxation due to the differences in the tax bases are always offset by the differences in the tax rates. It also regards the chosen measures as disproportionate since there are other methods of preventing fraud, for example by requiring the service provider to give information, by mutual assistance and information exchange with other EU Member States under EU Directive 77/799/EEC and by mutual assistance in the recovery of claims under EU Directive 2001/44/EC.
For the latest general information on infringement measures against Member States see:
http://ec.europa.eu/community_law/eulaw/index_en.htm
Securities markets: Commission proposes wider scope for Financial Collateral Directive
IP/07/22
Brussels, 9 January 2007
The European Commission has issued its evaluation report on the Financial Collateral Arrangements Directive (2002/47/EC). The report concludes that the Directive has made the use of financial collateral and the enforcement of collateral obligations simpler and more efficient. Overall, Member States have adequately implemented the Directive. The Commission proposes an extension of the Directive's scope to include certain credit claims that, as of 1 January 2007, will be eligible as collateral for Eurosystem credit operations.
The Commission's report is available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/financial-markets/collateral/index_en.htm
segunda-feira, 15 de janeiro de 2007
Mais uma obra do nosso contribuidor José António Barreiros
Lançamento:
Lisboa: 30 de Janeiro, 18h30, Ana Museu
apresentação pelo Prof. Doutor António Telo
FARO: 10 de Fevereiro, 17h30, R. Dr. Cândido Guerreiro, 26
Trata-se de uma história real, se bem que inacreditável
A bordo viajavam 13 passageiros, entre os quais o actor de teatro e do cinema Leslie Howard , que regressava de uma série de palestras de propaganda, efectuadas em Lisboa e Madrid.
Livro misto, a narrativa é algo ficcionada na BD, contada com rigor nas folhas que a ladeiam. O leitor segue, a par e passo, a estadia, em Lisboa, na Linha do Estoril e na zona de Sintra, no final de Maio de 1943, daquele que contracenou com Clark Gable em «E Tudo O Vento Levou».
José António Barreiros, que nos últimos anos se tem dedicado a estudar as redes estrangeiras de espionagem em Portugal, durante a Segunda Guerra, tema sobre o qual publicou quatro livros, reconstituiu a história. Carlos Barradas, com larga experiência em banda desenhada e ilustração, desenhou as pranchas segundo guião daquele. Douglas Wheeler, professor e reputado historiador americano, especialista na matéria, recentemente condecorado pelo Estado Português pelo desempenho em prol da cultura portuguesa, enriqueceu o livro com uma reflexão sobre os contornos enigmáticos do insólito acontecimento.
Transferência de prisioneiros
Chamada de atenção, para eventuais interessados, ao recente artigo de Margaret L. Satterthwaite, que além de compilar informação sobre alegadas extradições especiais ou extra-judiciais («extraordinary renditions»), procede à crítica da fundamentação jurídica da actual administração norte-americana (empreendendo uma síntese das posições sobre o tema nos EUA) – o texto pode ser encontrado aqui.
Sobre o caso europeu (incluindo Portugal) recorde-se que está disponibilizado na rede o projecto de relatório da Comissão Temporária, do Parlamento Europeu, sobre a Alegada Utilização pela CIA de Países Europeus para o Transporte e a Detenção Ilegal de Prisioneiros, que deve merecer atenção neste rectângulo, nomeadamente, o trecho em que, relativamente a «escalas de aeronaves operadas pela CIA em aeroportos portugueses», se «encoraja vivamente os Procuradores portugueses a investigar mais profundamente estes voos» (§ 98) - projecto complementado pelo documento de trabalho nº 8.
sábado, 13 de janeiro de 2007
Auxílios estatais à investigação e desenvolvimento e à inovação
Fundo Europeu de Ajustamento à Globalização
Regulamento. Igualdade de Género
Directiva. Carta de condução
Regulamento. Auxílios de minimis
Auxílios estatais: a Comissão Europeia adopta a nova Regulação "de minimis", isentando de notificação os auxílios inferiores a €200,000
IP/06/1765
Direito do Trabalho. Trabalho a termo. Prémio de antiguidade
Acordo‑quadro CES, UNICE e CEEP – Trabalho a termo – Condições de trabalho – Prémio de antiguidade – Não pagamento devido a acordos entre os representantes sindicais dos trabalhadores e a administração – Razões objectivas suficientes
Conclusões do Advogado-Geral Miguel Poiares Maduro:«A Directiva 1999/70/CE do Conselho, de 28 de Junho de 1999, respeitante ao acordo‑quadro CES, UNICE e CEEP relativo a contratos de trabalho a termo, deve ser interpretada no sentido de que:
– estão abrangidos pelo âmbito de aplicação do acordo‑quadro anexo à referida directiva os trabalhadores contratados a termo ou partes num contrato ou numa relação laboral, nos termos definidos pela lei, pelas convenções colectivas ou pelas práticas vigentes no Estado‑Membro em causa. No entanto, compete ao órgão jurisdicional nacional verificar se essa qualificação é efectuada pelo direito nacional em condições que respeitem os objectivos prosseguidos pela Directiva 1999/70 e os princípios gerais do direito comunitário, em especial o princípio fundamental da igualdade de tratamento. A exclusão de uma categoria de trabalhadores do âmbito de aplicação desta directiva não pode ser justificada pelo simples facto de essa categoria ser regida por normas especiais. Pelo contrário, a exclusão deve ser justificada pela existência de um determinado tipo de relações de trabalho que não pode ser comparado com as relações de trabalho sujeitas, segundo o direito nacional, às disposições do acordo‑quadro;
– o artigo 4.º do acordo‑quadro anexo à Directiva 1999/70 só se aplica às condições de trabalho, com exclusão das remunerações.»
Disponível aqui.
Acórdão do TJCE. Liberdade de estabelecimento
Conclusões:
1) À luz do acórdão de 23 de Setembro de 2003, Akrich (C‑109/01), o direito comunitário não impõe aos Estados‑Membros que submetam a concessão do direito de residência a um nacional de um país terceiro, familiar de um cidadão comunitário que tenha feito uso da sua liberdade de circulação, à condição de esse familiar ter anteriormente residido de forma legal noutro Estado‑Membro.
2) O artigo 1.°, n.° 1, alínea d), da Directiva 73/148/CEE do Conselho, de 21 de Maio de 1973, relativa à supressão das restrições à deslocação e à permanência dos nacionais dos Estados‑Membros na Comunidade, em matéria de estabelecimento e de prestação de serviços, deve ser interpretado no sentido de que se entende por «[estar] a seu cargo» o facto de um familiar de um cidadão comunitário estabelecido noutro Estado‑Membro, na acepção do artigo 43.° CE, necessitar do apoio material desse cidadão ou do seu cônjuge para prover às suas necessidades essenciais no Estado de origem ou de proveniência desse familiar, no momento em que pede para se juntar a esse cidadão. O artigo 6.°, alínea b), da mesma directiva deve ser interpretado no sentido de que a prova da necessidade de apoio material pode ser feita através de qualquer meio apropriado, podendo considerar‑se que o simples compromisso, assumido pelo cidadão comunitário ou pelo seu cônjuge, de tomar a seu cargo esse familiar não demonstra a existência de uma situação de dependência real deste.
Decisão-quadro. Simplificação do intercâmbio de dados e informações entre as autoridades de aplicação da lei dos Estados-Membros da União Europeia:
Directiva sobre direitos de Autor
Concorrência: o inquérito realizado pela Comissão ao sector da energia confirma a existência de graves problemas de concorrência
Bruxelas, 10 de Janeiro de 2007
A Comissão Europeia publicou o seu relatório final sobre o inquérito ao sector da energia em termos de concorrência, que conclui que os consumidores e as empresas estão a ser prejudicados devido à ineficiência e ao custo dos mercados do gás e da electricidade. Entre os problemas encontrados figuram os elevados níveis de concentração do mercado, a integração vertical da oferta, da produção e das infra-estruturas, que impede um acesso equitativo e dá origem a investimentos insuficientes em infra-estruturas e, eventualmente, a uma eventual colusão entre os operadores tradicionais, tendo em vista a partilha dos mercados. Para resolver estes problemas, a Comissão continuará a realizar acções de acompanhamento em casos individuais, com base nas regras de concorrência (anti-trust, controlo das operações de concentração e auxílios estatais) e tomará medidas para melhorar o quadro regulamentar aplicável à liberalização da energia (ver igualmente IP/07/29). A Comissão efectuou já um certo número de inspecções a empresas, em que estes aspectos específicos as justificaram.
Internal Market: Commission welcomes EU regulators' report on credit rating agencies
Brussels, 10 January 2007
The European Commission has welcomed a report issued by the Committee of European Securities Regulators (CESR) on the extent to which credit rating agencies (CRAs) comply with the International Organisation of Securities Commissions (IOSCO) Code. The report concludes that the main CRAs generally comply with the Code, but also identifies various deviations. CESR was asked to monitor CRAs' compliance as part of the Commission's new policy approach to CRAs, which is based on a combination of existing EU financial services Directives and industry self-regulation (see IP/06/8).
Redes europeias de electricidade e gás: A Comissão Europeia apela para melhorias urgentes
Bruxelas, 10 de Janeiro de 2007
Como elemento da sua Política Energética para a Europa, a Comissão lançou o alarme sobre o estado actual da infra-estrutura energética e propôs uma série de acções prioritárias. São necessárias medidas urgentes para desenvolver uma infra-estrutura energética eficaz e redes de electricidade e gás na Europa e para atingir os objectivos de sustentabilidade, competitividade e segurança do aprovisionamento.
Inquérito sectorial ao mercado energético
O inquérito sectorial da energia foi lançado em Junho de 2005 (cfr. IP/05/716 e MEMO/05/203). Trata-se de uma investigação no âmbito do direito da concorrência, baseada no art. 17.º do Regulamento 1/2003. O inquérito analisa as condições concorrenciais dos mercados europeus do gás e da electricidade e examina se as actuais indicações de mau funcionamento dos mercados resulta de violações do direito da concorrência.
Brussels, 10th January 2007
What are the main findings of the sector inquiry?
The Final Report confirms the preliminary findings from last February, which identified serious shortcomings in the electricity and gas markets. There is:
1. too much market concentration in most national markets a lack of liquidity, preventing successful new entry;
2. too little integration between Member States’ markets and
3. an absence of transparently available market information, leading to distrust in the pricing mechanisms.
Furthermore, the continued work in the inquiry has shown that:
the current level of unbundling between network and supply interests has negative repercussions on market functioning and investment incentives customers are tied to suppliers through long-term downstream contracts current balancing markets and small balancing zones favour incumbents LNG supplies can increase upstream competition and security of supply
The majority of the stakeholders supported the findings of the Preliminary Report, although there were variations in the assessment of the gravity of the situation and whether the situation is improving or not. As regards the possible ways forward, there was both support and opposition to the ideas put forward in the Preliminary Report such as structural unbundling, while some called for even more radical remedies. Generally, the vertically integrated incumbent companies were not in favour of further measures, whilst consumers, traders/new entrants and authorities supported the call for legislative initiatives.
What will be the follow-up to the findings?
Already following the Preliminary Report, the Commission initiated a number of anti-trust cases where the Commission suspects that anti-competitive behaviour is contributing to the problems identified by the sector inquiry. However, competition law cannot open markets by itself, and we need to complement our enforcement through an improved legal framework. Here, the Sector Inquiry plays an important role in the Commission's work on identifying necessary regulatory changes, in particular issues such as:
1. achieving adequate unbundling of network and supply activities
2. removing the regulatory gaps, in particular for cross border issues
3.addressing market concentration and barriers to entry
4. increasing transparency in market operations.
The Commission's intentions concerning regulatory proposals in this regard are set out in its Communication on "Prospects for the internal gas and electricity market", which was adopted in parallel to the Final Report of the Sector Inquiry.
How has the Sector Inquiry been useful in the Commission's competition enforcement work?
The findings of the Sector Inquiry enable the Commission to focus its enforcement action on the most serious concerns as identified in the report. They also make it easier to identify efficient remedies that can resolve the specific competition problems in individual cases. The increased knowledge and understanding of the electricity and gas markets has already been used in order to better assess competition concerns in large energy mergers (e.g. GdF/Suez - see IP/06/1558, E.ON/MOL - see IP/05/1658). Moreover, a number of investigations into possible violations of the competition rules were launched in May 2006 (see MEMO/06/205 and MEMO/06/220). These cases relate mainly to suspicions of foreclosure of wholesale markets and infrastructure by companies that can be qualified as “incumbents”, as well as to collusion between those incumbents in the form of market sharing.
In December 2006, further inspections were carried out at more than 10 premises of the four incumbent electricity generators and suppliers in Germany (see MEMO/06/483). The suspected infringements relate to practices on the wholesale market and the balancing market (i.e. the market for ensuring balance between power generated and consumed). In addition, the Commission has received a number of very interesting complaints. Large energy companies now appear to be very much aware that the spotlight is on them, and the sector inquiry has, hopefully, in itself led to a better conduct by the main players in the electricity and gas markets.
How does the sector inquiry fit with other energy policy initiatives?
The European Council and the renewed Lisbon strategy put an efficient and integrated energy policy at the heart of the Commission’s priorities. The Commission’s 2006 Green Paper on energy underlines the need for a competitive energy market to promote competitiveness and security of supply. A High Level Group on competitiveness, energy and environment has been working on finding a balance between the EU's three essential policy objectives of sustainability, security of supply and competitiveness. All these initiatives, including the strategic EU energy review adopted in January 2007, is leading to a discussion on the concrete need for further liberalisation measures.
How is competition compatible with environmental goals?
Competitive energy markets will play a major role in developing and deploying new environmentally friendly technologies. Strong competition in the electricity market has a positive effect on the efficiency of power generation, because market players want to minimise costs and invest in efficient technologies. Renewable technologies would be better served by an increase in transparency, and by open, competitive markets. The larger the internal market, the more economies of scale can be realised.
How is competition compatible with security of supply goals?
Europe needs stable relationships with the main producers outside the EU. But this does not and must not prevent us from ensuring an integrated competitive market inside the EU. An open and competitive, liquid and interconnected, single EU market will guarantee a secure provision of energy in the future, as it will make the European market attractive for external suppliers. Such a market will also be open to new energy mixes.
How can we address the dependency on a few external gas suppliers?
An enhanced security of gas supply in the EU requires diversification of supply. This means exploring all possibilities to reduce dependency on fossil fuels by increased energy efficiency and investment into new alternative technologies. It also means a diversification of supply regions taking into account that gas will remain an important primary fuel for the years to come.
The best way to achieve this diversification is by establishing a competitive internal market. Competition prompts innovative solutions, as well as investment in new infrastructure and R&D leading to new technologies. As competition develops, the number of upstream producers supplying EU gas markets will continue to increase, both as regards Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) supplies and pipelines linking Europe with new supply regions.
Why hasn't the Commission looked at the high profits of energy companies?
The Commission has commissioned a study, to identify whether the rise in prices is mainly due to the rise of fuel prices and to the impact of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), or whether it is also due to substantial additional mark ups by market actors. It must also be noted that creating a competitive market will substantially contribute to reducing the scope for excessive profits.
How can the Commission tackle the problem of concentration?
Entry into the market and expansion of market share by competitors is the best way to tackle the problem of concentration. When applying the anti-trust rules, the Commission will therefore focus on cases that remove obstacles to market entry. Moreover, in the context of merger control, it is essential to ensure that market concentration does not further increase. While each merger case is assessed according to its specific characteristics, the inquiry helps to identify the most relevant criteria and the most efficient remedies in the given market environment. One option may be to secure increased use of gas and electricity release programmes in order to reduce the effect of concentration at the upstream supply level and inject liquidity into the market.
Why does the Commission still treat markets as national?
Single Market legislation alone does not create a common market. When it comes to market definitions it is always important to assess the markets on their own merits. The Commission takes a case by case approach to defining the geographic and product dimensions of the relevant market. The definition of the relevant market must take into account the different degrees of market developments in Member States, such as the level of openness to competition and the existence of an operator indispensable to meet demand. Other factors include the difference in prevailing price levels, the differences in market design and the availability of cross border capacity.
The report underlines the fact that a single competitive European energy market has not yet been achieved and that there is little cross border trade between the vertically integrated national incumbents. Although there is a significant amount of gas which is transported through Member States via pipelines, such gas rarely reaches the national gas markets through which it is transported, as it tends to be tied up in long term supply agreements.
How do energy release programmes work to reduce concentration?
Energy release programmes (i.e. electricity Virtual Power Plant auctions and gas release programmes) are a means to develop market liquidity and ensure that new suppliers can buy enough gas or electricity to build a supply business. They require incumbents to sell defined volumes of energy, and in order to be fully effective they must be well-designed, large scale and be combined with release of network capacity. They have sometimes been imposed by national authorities in the Member States and have also been imposed by the Commission in the context of merger control.
An even more effective measure to reduce concentration would be divestiture or swaps of electricity generation and ceding of control over long-term upstream gas contracts via contract release/swaps or divestiture of production assets. Some Member States have introduced ceilings on ownership of electricity generation and control over long-term upstream gas contracts (imports and national production), as an effective measure to rapidly reduce market power.
Don't we need large companies to negotiate with large gas producers?
The Commission is not opposed to large companies per se, as long as there is effective competition in the marketplace. Competition is the best way to ensure diverse sources of energy throughout the EU. A competitive gas market would provide the best incentives to seek and achieve the most efficient outcomes. A competitive market would prevent external providers of gas dominating particular regions within the EU. An EU-wide market would arbitrage prices downwards thus enabling companies to source gas from the most efficient sources. High levels of concentration, combined with barriers to entry, stifle competition and so can inhibit diversification of energy supply.
Don't we need large companies to invest in power plants?
It does not necessarily take very large companies to make investments in this sector. In fact, it is not the largest energy companies which have invested the most in new generation facilities in the past few years. For instance, for gas-fired plants, much of the capacity has been created by more mid-size companies such as the various generators in the UK and the competitors of the incumbent in Italy. And in the nuclear sector, the only construction currently under way is made by one of the smallest operators of nuclear plants, not by the larger operators.
How can we encourage new investment in electricity generation?
A well-functioning electricity market would provide the necessary signals for market actors to invest. This has to be combined with a stable regulatory framework, and good opportunities to make profits. Currently the profit level may be too high due to the poorly functioning markets, but on the other hand, a few years ago the prices may have been too low to provide sufficient rates of return.
A number of investments in generation are currently planned, which indicates that the price signals work, even if new entrants still face too many obstacles to build new plants and obtain grid connection for them. It is important to ensure efficient authorisation procedures that do not cause unnecessary delays.
What is structural unbundling?
Structural unbundling is the effective separation of ownership between the monopoly electricity and gas networks on the one hand and commercial activities elsewhere in the value chain. The gas and electricity networks that transport electricity and gas between producers and customers may be considered in a number of cases to be natural monopolies and continue to be regulated. However, many networks are still owned and operated by companies that are also active in the liberalised parts of the sector.
Companies that also own and operate the networks that are needed by their competitors, have an incentive to distort the level playing field in their own favour. Similarly, investment incentives are distorted, creating risks to security of supply, with decisions not necessarily taken in the interest of network/infrastructure operations, but instead on the basis of the supply interests of the integrated company. The gas and electricity liberalisation Directives contain provisions which aim at ensuring that owners of networks do not abuse their networks to restrict competition on the liberalised parts of the industry. However, the Sector Inquiry shows that the present measures are insufficient. Ultimately, the most effective way to remove the incentives for network companies to favour their own commercial activities is to remove the ownership link. This would create a level playing field and it would change the incentive structure in the right direction.
What about other solutions short of structural unbundling?
Full separation between networks and supply/generation business (i.e. ownership unbundling) would be a more effective means of resolving the problems than any other options, such as a fully Independent System Operator (ISO).
An ISO solution would be an improvement on the status quo, and would reduce the risk of discrimination for the day-to-day running of the network business. However, there are several unresolved concerns. It would require more detailed, complex and prescriptive regulation to be effective and would be less effective in addressing the disincentives to invest in networks. In practice an awkward and complicated relationship between regulators, asset owners and ISOs arises, with a need for complex regulatory arrangements requiring detailed and continuous monitoring. Unlike ownership unbundling, the creation of an ISO does not change the incentives of the asset owner. The construction seeks to force the asset owner to act contrary to its incentives. Experience shows that this is no easy task.
Has inappropriate unbundling actually led to competition problems?
The Commission has received a number of allegations that vertically integrated incumbents have discriminated against new entrants, for example by ensuring that the supply arm gets privileged access to available firm capacities on transit routes, as well as to capacity information, resulting in important competitive advantages over independent third parties. The Commission is currently carrying out several investigations based on such allegations, and has found that current requirements for separation of network and supply businesses are not respected. Examples include frequent information exchange, as well as investment decisions on network expansion being taken by the holding company in which the supply affiliate is represented.
In a decision in May 2006, the Italian competition authority found ENI guilty of abusing its dominant position on the wholesale gas supply market in Italy by delaying investments that would increase the capacity in a pipeline owned by one of its subsidiaries (Trans Tunisian Pipeline Company). The increased capacity would have improved the ability for competitors to import gas to Italy. In another recent case, the Czech competition authority in August 2006 found RWE Transgas guilty of abusing its dominant position by favouring its own local distribution affiliates at the expense of other distribution companies not belonging to the RWE group.
Is vertical integration between electricity generation and supply a problem?
Vertical integration between generation and supply reduces the necessity for companies to trade on wholesale electricity markets, thus potentially hindering the development of liquidity. Vertical integration might not pose a problem per se where there is an actively traded wholesale market giving market participants the convenience to manage their price and volume risks. Vertical integration should give rise to concern where the extent of this phenomenon has a clear foreclosing effect and threatens the operation of independent generation and supply businesses.
What about the efficiencies in vertical integration of generation and supply?
The Commission is fully aware of efficiencies which may stem from vertical integration. Vertical integration may, for instance, provide a hedge against wholesale market price volatility and allow economies of scope to be realised. The related savings will, in a truly competitive electricity market, be transmitted through lower prices to final customers.
However, vertical integration across the entire supply chain means that companies have little reason to trade on electricity wholesale markets. Liquidity on electricity wholesale markets is therefore likely to remain low when vertical integration is widespread. Low liquidity results in non-transparent price formation, creating distrust both among customers and potential competitors and provides unreliable price signals for investments and, thus, poses a risk to the security of electricity supply. Illiquid wholesale markets also raise significant barriers for new entry into both generation and retail market segments.
Are long-term downstream contracts anti-competitive?
Long term contracts tying large customers to dominant suppliers can create market foreclosure, and therefore have to be carefully examined. We must avoid that a good part of demand is tied up by long term contracts, since that will make it difficult to create well functioning energy markets. If we are not careful, our efforts to open up other parts of the supply chain could be jeopardised.
The Sector Inquiry has confirmed tying of markets by long-term downstream contracts as an immediate priority for review of individual situations under competition law. The German competition authority recently took a decision against long term gas supply contracts concluded by EON Ruhrgas for the German market.
Although many energy intensive industries favour long term supply contracts for electricity, others are less convinced of this as the best solution to high electricity prices, since a well-functioning electricity market will be able to provide cost reflective prices in the long run.
Are long-term gas supply contracts in upstream markets anti-competitive?
Long contract duration is not, in itself, anti-competitive. It is established Commission policy that long term import contracts have an important role to play when it comes to ensuring Europe’s security of supply. However, where a significant proportion of the gas that can come to the market is locked in for the long-term, the cumulative effect might be that new entrants are excluded from the market.
Individual terms and conditions contained in such contracts may also be anti-competitive: e.g. territorial restrictions are generally viewed negatively under Community competition rules. However, legitimate needs to underpin large investments with certain long-term contracts, must be taken into account.
Is access to gas storage working?
Although non-discriminatory access to storage is supposed to be ensured under the existing gas Directive, either by regulation or by negotiation, the Sector Inquiry indicates that access conditions are not yet satisfactory. In order to provide sufficient guarantees for effective access, third party access for gas storage needs to be reviewed so as to strike the right balance between the need for effective access and maintaining incentives for new storage developments.
Lack of market integration
How can we improve the regulatory environment?
The Sector Inquiry confirms that Europe needs a substantial strengthening of the powers of independent regulators and enhanced European coordination. Reinforced coordination between national energy regulators, with a stronger role for Community oversight, particularly as regards cross-border issues and areas most critical for market entry, will be necessary to overcome the current regulatory cross-border gap. In order to achieve a single European network from the perspective of the network user, there is also a need for harmonisation of market design, especially regarding methods having an effect on cross-border trade. Wherever current capacity is insufficient, interconnector capacity needs to be developed as a necessary condition for the development of competition and the integration of markets. This can only be achieved through increased cooperation between national regulators inducing increased cooperation among Transmission System Operators across national borders within a well-defined procedural framework.
What are explicit and implicit auctions of cross-border electricity capacity?
Explicit auction: along with the requested capacity amount, the applicants have to declare how much they are willing to pay for this capacity. These bids are ordered by price and allocated starting from the highest one until the available capacity is used up. Usually the price for the capacity is set to the bid price of the lowest allocated bid.
Implicit auction: transmission capacity is managed implicitly by two or more neighbouring spot markets. Network users submit purchase or sale bids for energy in the geographical zone where they wish to generate or consume, and the market clearing procedure determines the most efficient amount and direction of physical power exchange between the zones. Hence, separate allocation of transmission capacity is not required, and cross border capacity and energy are traded together.
Since traders do not have perfect foresight, they have to bid in the explicit auction without knowing what the prices are on the spot markets in two connected markets. The Sector Inquiry indicates that implicit auctioning results in a better utilisation of interconnector capacity. Implicit day-ahead auctions or equivalent measures should therefore be promoted as much as possible to ensure that interconnectors are used to their maximum extent.
Should new investments in gas infrastructure be exempted from regulation?
Under the Second Gas Directive, new or upgraded infrastructure can be exempted from third-party access if strict competition criteria are met. This enables regulators to be flexible to investors’ needs to mitigate part of the risk through long-term contracts, so long as competition is not harmed. This approach reflects the fact that new investments bringing new gas sources to the market can enhance competition and benefit consumers, so long as long-term reservations do not cement incumbents’ market shares and discourage new entry.
It is important that projects continue to be scrutinised on a case by case basis with strict application of competition principles striking a proper balance between incentives for ex-ante investment and ex-post competition, and that the exemption procedures are streamlined.
How can transparency be improved?
There is general recognition that access to market information should be further enhanced. All relevant market information should be published on a rolling basis in a timely manner. Any exceptions should be very strictly limited to what is required to reduce the risk of collusion. Guidelines, as well as monitoring and eventually adaptation of existing regulation, should serve to further enhance transparency in the gas and electricity sector.
Does transparency not endanger business secrets or facilitate collusion?
While such concerns have to be taken very seriously, we consider that in the current situation, the need for transparency outweighs the fear of collusion. A balance must certainly be found as to what data is published and how it is published, in order to improve transparency without endangering business secrets or facilitating collusion. Transparency is needed to enable market players to take sound commercial decisions. Reliable and publicly available information creates a level playing field and plays an important role in building confidence in the market.
What are the price differences between Member States?
The price of gas varies considerably across the EU for many reasons. In some Member States the cost of importing gas is higher than elsewhere, reflecting the gas prices negotiated in the past between importers and gas producers. The cost of transporting gas to the Member States can also differ significantly. If there is a shortage of gas or import capacity is congested, prices can of course rise dramatically. Finally, the degree of competition on a market will affect the pricing strategies of the gas suppliers in the Member State.
Also prices of electricity vary considerably across the EU, but there are many valid reasons for these price differences. For electricity, the generation mix (coal, gas, hydro, nuclear, etc) available in each country and the cost of each input will determine the overall price level. The lack of interconnector capacity also explains why the price differences remain.
For a more detailed comparison of wholesale and retail prices in all Member States, please consult Eurostat, the Statistical Office of the European Communities.
Why not propose to control prices?
The inquiry seeks to identify market malfunctioning and possible anti-competitive conduct by companies. By remedying such problems, an integrated and efficient European energy market can be achieved. The reinforcement of competition principles on the market will also lead to competitive prices. This solves problems at the root, in order to ensure long-term advantages for the consumers. The setting of prices on supply markets can have very negative consequences for the market structure. If the regulated tariff is too low, new entrants are excluded from the market. Moreover, when prices are artificially low, market players will not invest in new capacity, which is detrimental to security of supply. It would, therefore, be important to assess the impact of remaining regulated supply tariffs on the development of competition.
In several Member States, special measures to reduce electricity bills for energy intensive industries have also been considered. Such schemes must be compatible with antitrust and state aid rules.
Why are the electricity prices so high?
There are a number of reasons why the prices have climbed over the past few years. Some of the reasons can be considered as acceptable, while some are not. One of the reasons that has to be accepted is the increase of fuel prices, in particular oil and gas, although the indexing of gas to oil prices can be questioned.
Another acceptable reason is that many Member States now include various forms of levies on electricity to finance the development of renewable energy. Such price increases, which are generally relatively low compared to the overall prices, have to be accepted as part of the costs of reducing the climate change problem. The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS), which is a crucial element in the EU climate change strategy, has also had an impact on prices.
On the contrary, anti-competitive behaviour would not be an acceptable reason for higher electricity prices.
How do CO2 allowances affect electricity prices?
It seems that generators are, at least to some extent, including the value of CO2 allowances into their pricing decisions. This practice was also confirmed by the sector inquiry, but the extent to which this happens is unclear and the inquiry has not analysed individual company conduct. The Bundeskartellamt has opened an investigation against German generators on this aspect.
As regards the market price of allowances, it must be noted that CO2 pricing is a function of supply and demand and that the Commission does not intervene to adjust the prices. The Commission has recently reviewed the emissions trading scheme. In its report, the Commission analyses how the ETS has worked to date. It identifies the need for a review process with a view to improving some features of the ETS for the trading period starting in 2013. Prices of allowances for the current trading period (2005-2007) have fallen, reflecting the rather generous CO2 allocations by the Member States. For the next trading period (2008-2012) CO2 forward prices are higher, reflecting expected more stringent national allocations of CO2.
Why are gas prices so high?
While some gas supply contracts have fixed prices many others are historically linked to oil prices. This oil/gas price link may have been beneficial for consumers during the many years of low and stable oil prices, but is now posing a problem for consumers. This link could also be a symptom of malfunctioning markets. In well-functioning markets the price would to a much greater extent be set by gas-to-gas competition.
Is the gas-oil price link compatible with a competitive market?
Gas import contracts use price indices that are linked to oil derivatives. The indexation of gas prices to oil prices in gas supply contracts has historical roots from the pre-liberalisation period. However, with market opening and the emergence of credible gas hubs, one would expect such contractual practices to gradually become less pronounced. This expectation is supported by the situation in the United Kingdom, a more liberalised energy market where gas-oil link indexation is much less prevalent.
No clear trend towards more market based pricing mechanisms can currently be observed in long-term import contracts. As a result, wholesale prices fail to react to changes in the supply and demand for gas, which is damaging to security of supply. Ensuring liquidity will be crucial to improve confidence in price formation on gas hubs, which will allow for a relaxation of the linkage to oil.
Why is the Commission concerned about market foreclosure?
A market which is foreclosed (i.e. from which new market entrants are excluded) is not subject to effective competition. If a new entrant cannot start up their business in a certain market, the incumbents are not subject to competitive pressure that encourages them to provide customers with good services at low prices.
Are long term contracts alone enough to foreclose the market?
The Commission will look at contract duration in addition to other contractual clauses and market conditions which may lead to market foreclosure. It is necessary to examine whether there are real concrete possibilities for a new competitor to penetrate a bundle of contracts. Factors that would be considered include the volumes tied under the individual contracts, the duration of the contracts, the cumulative market coverage of the contracts and any efficiencies claimed by the parties. It is also necessary to consider any exclusivity clauses in the contracts which may prevent the customer from switching supplier. The cumulative effect of long term contracts, exclusivity clauses and market characteristics may make it very difficult for the customer to switch.
How can the problems highlighted on downstream markets be addressed?
The analysis indicates that levels of foreclosure vary considerably in different Member States. Generally, the Commission will look to impose remedies in merger and anti-trust cases that will assist in opening up downstream markets to competitors. Removing barriers to entry is a key goal in EU energy markets. Closely related to this is splitting the network companies away from the potentially competitive parts of the gas and electricity supply chain (such as retail, generation, gas production). This helps to ensure that new entrants gain non-discriminatory access to essential pipeline and grid networks.
When will we be able to switch our gas and electricity suppliers?
By 1st July 2007 all customers, including household customers, should have the ability to switch. However, some countries benefit from a derogation under the Second Gas Directive. This means that they are not obliged to implement the Directive in the same time frame and so customers may have to wait longer before they have the legal option to switch.
Balancing markets
Why are balancing rules important to competition in energy markets?
Balancing rules are rules imposed by the network operator on network users, for a specific network or a portion of a network ("balancing zone"), which oblige the user to maintain a balance between input and output and to pay for any imbalance it causes. The cost of balancing increases with the complexity of the rules and with the number of balancing zones with different rules that the energy needs to cross. While complex balancing rules can constitute a barrier to new market entry, incumbents are generally less likely to have problems, because of their large portfolios and access to flexible supply sources.
What can be done to resolve problems on balancing markets?
The size of current balancing zones is too small. It would therefore be important to enlarge them, as well as to harmonise and simplify the rules in the different zones. Balancing by the network operator is less necessary when the suppliers can exchange energy when they are not balanced. Consequently, the development of hubs and removal of obstacles to a better fluidity of the market are also important.
LNG markets
Can LNG supplies lead to more competition?
LNG supplies widen Europe’s upstream supply base and are therefore important for both security of supply and competition between upstream suppliers. Strong investment in LNG terminals has taken place and is scheduled to continue in the coming years. Recent trends, also point to more capacity going to new entrants and to producers themselves. This is likely to have a positive impact on downstream competition unless such effects are frustrated by anticompetitive rules or behaviour.
Should LNG infrastructure be exempted from regulation?
In assessing an exemption request from third-party access for an LNG terminal from the point of view of competition, the Commission will apply the same principles as for other types of new infrastructure. In other words, we will seek to achieve a balance between ex ante incentives to invest and competition in the downstream markets once the investment has been made. Within this framework, some of the key facts to consider are the characteristics of the contracts allocating capacity on the new LNG terminal and, in particular, the counterparties concerned.